twelve-factor（十二因数）

12-Factor App Methodology

Guide for building scalable, maintainable, and portable cloud-native applications following the 12-Factor App principles and modern extensions.

When to Activate

Use this skill when:

• Designing or refactoring cloud-native applications
• Building applications for Kubernetes deployment
• Setting up CI/CD pipelines
• Implementing microservices architecture
• Migrating applications to containers
• Reviewing architecture for cloud readiness
• Troubleshooting deployment or scaling issues
• Working with environment configuration

The 12 Factors

I. Codebase

One codebase tracked in revision control, many deploys

myapp-repo/
├── src/
├── config/
├── deploy/
│   ├── staging/
│   ├── production/
│   └── development/
└── Dockerfile

Key principles:

• Single Git repository for the application
• Multiple environments deploy from same codebase
• Environment-specific config separate from code
• Use GitOps (ArgoCD, Flux) for deployment automation

Anti-patterns:

• ❌ Multiple repositories for the same application
• ❌ Different codebases for different environments
• ❌ Copying code between repositories

II. Dependencies

Explicitly declare and isolate dependencies

Declare all dependencies explicitly using package managers:

# Multi-stage build for dependency isolation
FROM node:18-alpine AS dependencies
WORKDIR /app
COPY package*.json ./
RUN npm ci --only=production

FROM node:18-alpine AS runtime
WORKDIR /app
COPY --from=dependencies /app/node_modules ./node_modules
COPY . .
CMD ["node", "index.js"]

Language-specific examples:

• Node.js: package.json and package-lock.json
• Python: requirements.txt or Pipfile.lock
• Java: pom.xml or build.gradle
• Go: go.mod and go.sum
• Elixir: mix.exs and mix.lock
• Rust: Cargo.toml and Cargo.lock

Key principles:

• Never rely on system-wide packages
• Use lock files for reproducible builds
• Vendor dependencies when possible
• Multi-stage builds for smaller images

III. Config

Store config in the environment

All configuration should come from environment variables:

# Elixir - config/runtime.exs
import Config

config :my_app, MyApp.Repo,
  database: System.get_env("DATABASE_NAME") || "my_app_dev",
  username: System.get_env("DATABASE_USER") || "postgres",
  password: System.fetch_env!("DATABASE_PASSWORD"),
  hostname: System.get_env("DATABASE_HOST") || "localhost",
  pool_size: String.to_integer(System.get_env("POOL_SIZE") || "10")

// Node.js
const config = {
  database: {
    url: process.env.DATABASE_URL,
    pool: {
      min: parseInt(process.env.DB_POOL_MIN || '2'),
      max: parseInt(process.env.DB_POOL_MAX || '10')
    }
  },
  cache: {
    ttl: parseInt(process.env.CACHE_TTL || '3600')
  }
};

Kubernetes ConfigMaps:

apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: app-config
data:
  DATABASE_HOST: "postgres-service"
  CACHE_TTL: "3600"
  LOG_LEVEL: "info"

Kubernetes Secrets:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
metadata:
  name: app-secrets
type: Opaque
data:
  DATABASE_PASSWORD: <base64-encoded>
  JWT_SECRET: <base64-encoded>
  API_KEY: <base64-encoded>

Anti-patterns:

• ❌ Hardcoded configuration values
• ❌ Configuration files committed to version control
• ❌ Different code paths for different environments

IV. Backing Services

Treat backing services as attached resources

Connect to all backing services (databases, queues, caches, APIs) via URLs in environment variables:

// Treat all backing services uniformly
const services = {
  database: createConnection(process.env.DATABASE_URL),
  cache: createRedisClient(process.env.REDIS_URL),
  queue: createQueueClient(process.env.RABBITMQ_URL),
  storage: createS3Client(process.env.S3_ENDPOINT)
};

Kubernetes Service Discovery:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  name: redis-service
spec:
  selector:
    app: redis
  ports:
  - port: 6379
    targetPort: 6379

Key principles:

• No distinction between local and third-party services
• Swappable via configuration change only
• No code changes to swap backing services
• Connection via URL in environment

V. Build, Release, Run

Strictly separate build and run stages

Three distinct stages:

1. Build: Convert code to executable bundle
2. Release: Combine build with config
3. Run: Execute in target environment

# GitHub Actions CI/CD Pipeline
name: Build and Deploy
on:
  push:
    branches: [main]

jobs:
  build:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v3
      - name: Build Docker image
        run: docker build -t myapp:${{ github.sha }} .
      - name: Push to registry
        run: docker push myapp:${{ github.sha }}

  deploy:
    needs: build
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
      - name: Deploy to Kubernetes
        run: kubectl set image deployment/myapp myapp=myapp:${{ github.sha }}

Key principles:

• Immutable releases (never modify, only deploy new)
• Unique release identifiers (git SHA, semver)
• Rollback by redeploying previous release
• Separate build artifacts from runtime config

VI. Processes

Execute the app as one or more stateless processes

Application processes should be stateless and share-nothing. Store persistent state in backing services.

// ❌ Bad: In-memory session store
app.use(session({
  secret: process.env.SESSION_SECRET,
  resave: false
  // Uses memory store by default
}));

// ✓ Good: Store session in Redis
app.use(session({
  store: new RedisStore({
    client: redisClient,
    prefix: 'sess:'
  }),
  secret: process.env.SESSION_SECRET,
  resave: false,
  saveUninitialized: false
}));

Kubernetes Deployment:

apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  name: myapp
spec:
  replicas: 3  # Can scale horizontally
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: myapp
  template:
    spec:
      containers:
      - name: myapp
        image: myapp:latest
        resources:
          requests:
            memory: "128Mi"
            cpu: "100m"
          limits:
            memory: "256Mi"
            cpu: "200m"

Key principles:

• Stateless processes enable horizontal scaling
• No sticky sessions
• No local filesystem for persistent data
• Shared state goes in databases, caches, or queues

VII. Port Binding

Export services via port binding

Applications are self-contained and bind to a port:

const express = require('express');
const app = express();
const port = process.env.PORT || 3000;

app.listen(port, '0.0.0.0', () => {
  console.log(`Server running on port ${port}`);
});

# Phoenix endpoint config
config :my_app, MyAppWeb.Endpoint,
  http: [port: String.to_integer(System.get_env("PORT") || "4000")],
  server: true

Kubernetes Service:

apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  name: myapp-service
spec:
  selector:
    app: myapp
  ports:
  - port: 80
    targetPort: 3000
  type: LoadBalancer

Key principles:

• Bind to 0.0.0.0, not localhost
• Port number from environment variable
• No reliance on runtime injection (e.g., Apache, Nginx)
• HTTP server library embedded in app

VIII. Concurrency

Scale out via the process model

Scale by adding more processes (horizontal scaling), not by making processes larger (vertical scaling):

# Horizontal Pod Autoscaler
apiVersion: autoscaling/v2
kind: HorizontalPodAutoscaler
metadata:
  name: myapp-hpa
spec:
  scaleTargetRef:
    apiVersion: apps/v1
    kind: Deployment
    name: myapp
  minReplicas: 2
  maxReplicas: 10
  metrics:
  - type: Resource
    resource:
      name: cpu
      target:
        type: Utilization
        averageUtilization: 70

Process types (Procfile concept):

web: node server.js
worker: node worker.js
scheduler: node scheduler.js

Key principles:

• Different process types for different workloads
• Processes can scale independently
• OS process manager handles processes
• Never daemonize or write PID files

IX. Disposability

Maximize robustness with fast startup and graceful shutdown

const server = app.listen(port, () => {
  console.log('Server started');
});

// Graceful shutdown
process.on('SIGTERM', () => {
  console.log('SIGTERM received, shutting down gracefully');

  server.close(() => {
    // Close database connections
    db.close();

    // Close other connections
    redis.quit();

    console.log('Process terminated');
    process.exit(0);
  });
});

Kubernetes lifecycle hooks:

spec:
  containers:
  - name: myapp
    image: myapp:latest
    lifecycle:
      preStop:
        exec:
          command: ["/bin/sh", "-c", "sleep 15"]
    terminationGracePeriodSeconds: 30

Key principles:

• Minimize startup time (< 10 seconds ideal)
• Handle SIGTERM for graceful shutdown
• Finish in-flight requests before shutting down
• Robust against sudden death
• Fast startup enables rapid scaling

X. Dev/Prod Parity

Keep development, staging, and production as similar as possible

Docker Compose for local development:

version: '3.8'
services:
  app:
    build: .
    ports:
      - "3000:3000"
    environment:
      - DATABASE_URL=postgresql://user:pass@db:5432/myapp
      - REDIS_URL=redis://redis:6379
    depends_on:
      - db
      - redis

  db:
    image: postgres:15
    environment:
      POSTGRES_DB: myapp
      POSTGRES_USER: user
      POSTGRES_PASSWORD: pass

  redis:
    image: redis:7-alpine

Key principles:

• Use same backing services in dev and prod
• Containers ensure environment consistency
• Infrastructure as code for reproducibility
• Minimize time gap between dev and production
• Same deployment process for all environments

XI. Logs

Treat logs as event streams

Write all logs to stdout/stderr, let the environment handle aggregation:

// Structured logging to stdout
const winston = require('winston');

const logger = winston.createLogger({
  format: winston.format.combine(
    winston.format.timestamp(),
    winston.format.json()
  ),
  transports: [
    new winston.transports.Console()
  ]
});

logger.info('User logged in', {
  userId: 123,
  ip: '192.168.1.1',
  userAgent: 'Mozilla/5.0...'
});

# Elixir structured logging
require Logger

Logger.info("User logged in",
  user_id: 123,
  ip: "192.168.1.1"
)

Key principles:

• Never manage log files
• Write unbuffered to stdout
• Use structured logging (JSON)
• Let platform route logs (Fluentd, Logstash)
• Include correlation IDs for tracing

Anti-patterns:

• ❌ Writing to log files
• ❌ Log rotation within the app
• ❌ Sending logs directly to aggregation service

XII. Admin Processes

Run admin/management tasks as one-off processes

Database migrations, console, one-time scripts:

# Kubernetes Job for database migration
apiVersion: batch/v1
kind: Job
metadata:
  name: db-migration
spec:
  template:
    spec:
      containers:
      - name: migrate
        image: myapp:latest
        command: ["npm", "run", "migrate"]
        env:
        - name: DATABASE_URL
          valueFrom:
            secretKeyRef:
              name: app-secrets
              key: DATABASE_URL
      restartPolicy: OnFailure

# CronJob for scheduled cleanup
apiVersion: batch/v1
kind: CronJob
metadata:
  name: data-cleanup
spec:
  schedule: "0 2 * * *"
  jobTemplate:
    spec:
      template:
        spec:
          containers:
          - name: cleanup
            image: myapp:latest
            command: ["npm", "run", "cleanup"]
          restartPolicy: OnFailure

Key principles:

• Same environment as regular processes
• Same codebase and config
• Run against release, not development code
• Use scheduler for recurring tasks
• Ship admin code with application code

Modern Extensions (Beyond 12)

XIII. API First

Design and document APIs before implementation:

# OpenAPI specification
openapi: 3.0.0
info:
  title: My API
  version: v1
paths:
  /users:
    get:
      summary: List users
      responses:
        '200':
          description: Success

Key principles:

• OpenAPI/Swagger specifications
• API versioning (URL or header)
• API gateway pattern
• Contract-first development

XIV. Telemetry

Comprehensive observability with metrics, tracing, and monitoring:

# Prometheus ServiceMonitor
apiVersion: monitoring.coreos.com/v1
kind: ServiceMonitor
metadata:
  name: myapp-monitor
spec:
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: myapp
  endpoints:
  - port: metrics
    path: /metrics

Key principles:

• Expose /metrics endpoint (Prometheus format)
• Distributed tracing (OpenTelemetry)
• Application Performance Monitoring (APM)
• Custom business metrics
• Health check endpoints

XV. Security

Authentication, authorization, and security by design:

// JWT authentication middleware
function authenticateToken(req, res, next) {
  const authHeader = req.headers['authorization'];
  const token = authHeader && authHeader.split(' ')[1];

  if (!token) return res.sendStatus(401);

  jwt.verify(token, process.env.JWT_SECRET, (err, user) => {
    if (err) return res.sendStatus(403);
    req.user = user;
    next();
  });
}

Key principles:

• OAuth 2.0 / OpenID Connect
• RBAC (Role-Based Access Control)
• Secrets in environment, never in code
• TLS everywhere
• Security scanning in CI/CD

Common Patterns

Configuration Validation

Validate required configuration at startup:

function validateConfig() {
  const required = ['DATABASE_URL', 'JWT_SECRET', 'REDIS_URL'];
  const missing = required.filter(key => !process.env[key]);

  if (missing.length > 0) {
    throw new Error(`Missing required environment variables: ${missing.join(', ')}`);
  }
}

// Call before starting server
validateConfig();

Health Checks

Implement health and readiness endpoints:

// Liveness probe
app.get('/health', (req, res) => {
  res.status(200).json({
    status: 'healthy',
    timestamp: new Date().toISOString()
  });
});

// Readiness probe
app.get('/ready', async (req, res) => {
  try {
    await db.ping();
    await redis.ping();
    res.status(200).json({ status: 'ready' });
  } catch (err) {
    res.status(503).json({ status: 'not ready', error: err.message });
  }
});

Kubernetes probes:

livenessProbe:
  httpGet:
    path: /health
    port: 3000
  initialDelaySeconds: 10
  periodSeconds: 10

readinessProbe:
  httpGet:
    path: /ready
    port: 3000
  initialDelaySeconds: 5
  periodSeconds: 5

Graceful Degradation

Handle backing service failures gracefully:

async function getCachedData(key) {
  try {
    return await redis.get(key);
  } catch (err) {
    logger.warn('Redis unavailable, falling back to database', { error: err.message });
    return await db.query('SELECT data FROM cache WHERE key = ?', [key]);
  }
}

Anti-Patterns to Avoid

❌ Environment-Specific Code Paths

// DON'T
if (process.env.NODE_ENV === 'production') {
  // Different behavior
} else {
  // Different behavior
}

// DO: Use configuration
const timeout = parseInt(process.env.TIMEOUT || '5000');

❌ Local File Storage

// DON'T: Write to local filesystem
fs.writeFile('/tmp/uploads/' + filename, data);

// DO: Use object storage
await s3.putObject({
  Bucket: process.env.S3_BUCKET,
  Key: filename,
  Body: data
});

❌ In-Memory State

// DON'T: Store state in memory
const sessions = new Map();

// DO: Use external store
const session = await redis.get(`session:${sessionId}`);

❌ Hardcoded Dependencies

// DON'T: Hardcode service locations
const db = connect('localhost:5432');

// DO: Use environment variables
const db = connect(process.env.DATABASE_URL);

Troubleshooting Guide

Application Won't Start

1. Check required environment variables are set
2. Validate configuration at startup
3. Check backing service connectivity
4. Review logs for initialization errors

Application Won't Scale

1. Identify stateful operations
2. Move state to backing services
3. Remove file system dependencies
4. Eliminate sticky sessions

Inconsistent Behavior Across Environments

1. Ensure same backing service types (not SQLite in dev, Postgres in prod)
2. Use containers for dev environment
3. Check for environment-specific code paths
4. Verify configuration is environment-only

Logs Not Appearing

1. Ensure writing to stdout/stderr
2. Avoid buffering log output
3. Check log aggregation configuration
4. Verify Kubernetes logging sidecar/daemonset

Best Practices Summary

1. Environment variables for all configuration
2. Stateless processes that can scale horizontally
3. Structured logging to stdout
4. Containers for development parity
5. Automated CI/CD pipelines
6. Health checks for orchestration
7. Graceful shutdown handling
8. Fast startup times (< 10s)
9. Immutable releases with unique IDs
10. Comprehensive monitoring and telemetry

Kubernetes-Specific Best Practices

Resource Limits

resources:
  requests:
    memory: "128Mi"
    cpu: "100m"
  limits:
    memory: "256Mi"
    cpu: "200m"

Init Containers

initContainers:
- name: wait-for-db
  image: busybox
  command: ['sh', '-c', 'until nc -z postgres-service 5432; do sleep 1; done']

Pod Disruption Budgets

apiVersion: policy/v1
kind: PodDisruptionBudget
metadata:
  name: myapp-pdb
spec:
  minAvailable: 1
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: myapp

Resources

• 12factor.net: Original methodology
• Kubernetes Documentation: https://kubernetes.io/docs/
• Docker Best Practices: https://docs.docker.com/develop/dev-best-practices/
• OpenTelemetry: https://opentelemetry.io/
• Prometheus: https://prometheus.io/

Key Insights

"The twelve-factor methodology can be applied to apps written in any programming language, and which use any combination of backing services (database, queue, memory cache, etc)."

"A twelve-factor app never relies on implicit existence of state on the filesystem. Even if a process has written something to disk, it must assume that file won't be available on the next request."

Design applications from day one to be cloud-native, scalable, and maintainable. The investment in following these principles pays dividends in operational simplicity and development velocity.