api-design（API 设计）

API Design

Principles and patterns for designing APIs that are consistent, predictable, and easy to evolve. Applies to any language or framework — the focus is on protocol-level design decisions, not implementation details.

A well-designed API treats its surface as a product: consumers should be able to predict behavior, recover from errors, and integrate without reading source code.

When to Use

• Designing a new public or internal API from scratch
• Reviewing an existing API for consistency and usability
• Choosing between REST and GraphQL for a project
• Planning API versioning or migration strategy
• Defining error response contracts across services
• Establishing API standards for a team or organization

REST vs GraphQL

Choose REST when: your domain maps naturally to resources and CRUD operations, you need HTTP caching, or your clients are simple (mobile apps, third-party integrations).

Choose GraphQL when: clients have highly varied data needs, you are aggregating multiple backend services, or you want a strongly typed contract between frontend and backend.

Both are valid. Many systems use REST for external/public APIs and GraphQL for internal frontend-backend communication.

REST Design Principles

REST APIs model the domain as resources and use HTTP semantics to operate on them.

Core rules:

• Resources are nouns, not verbs: /orders, not /getOrders
• HTTP methods are the verbs: GET reads, POST creates, PUT replaces, PATCH updates, DELETE removes
• URLs identify resources; query parameters filter, sort, or paginate them
• Use plural nouns for collections: /users, /users/{id}
• Limit nesting to two levels: /users/{id}/orders is fine; /users/{id}/orders/{id}/items/{id}/variants is not
• Use HTTP status codes meaningfully — do not return 200 for everything
• Support content negotiation via Accept and Content-Type headers

HATEOAS (Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State) adds discoverability by including links in responses. Useful for public APIs but often overkill for internal services:

{
  "id": 42,
  "status": "shipped",
  "_links": {
    "self": { "href": "/orders/42" },
    "cancel": { "href": "/orders/42/cancel", "method": "POST" },
    "customer": { "href": "/customers/7" }
  }
}

See REST Patterns Reference for detailed conventions.

GraphQL Design Principles

GraphQL APIs expose a strongly typed schema that clients query declaratively.

Core rules:

• Design schema-first — define the type system before writing resolvers
• Types represent domain concepts; fields represent attributes and relations
• Queries read data, mutations write data, subscriptions stream data
• Use the type system to enforce constraints (non-null, enums, input types)
• Avoid deeply nested schemas that create unpredictable query costs
• Solve N+1 problems with batching (dataloader pattern)
• Limit query depth and complexity to prevent abuse

Schema-first example:

type User {
  id: ID!
  name: String!
  email: String!
  orders(first: Int, after: String): OrderConnection!
}

type Order {
  id: ID!
  total: Float!
  status: OrderStatus!
  createdAt: DateTime!
}

enum OrderStatus {
  PENDING
  CONFIRMED
  SHIPPED
  DELIVERED
  CANCELLED
}

See GraphQL Patterns Reference for detailed conventions.

Error Handling

A consistent error format is one of the most impactful API design decisions. Consumers should be able to parse errors programmatically without inspecting message strings.

RFC 7807 Problem Details format (recommended for REST):

{
  "type": "https://api.example.com/errors/insufficient-funds",
  "title": "Insufficient Funds",
  "status": 422,
  "detail": "Account balance is $10.00 but the transfer requires $50.00.",
  "instance": "/transfers/abc-123",
  "errors": [
    {
      "field": "amount",
      "code": "insufficient_funds",
      "message": "Transfer amount exceeds available balance"
    }
  ]
}

Key principles:

• Use a machine-readable type or code — clients should branch on codes, not messages
• Include a human-readable detail for debugging
• Return field-level errors for validation failures so clients can highlight specific inputs
• Use appropriate HTTP status codes (REST) or structured error types (GraphQL)
• Never expose stack traces, internal paths, or SQL queries in production
• Include a correlation/request ID for tracing errors across services

GraphQL error conventions:

{
  "data": { "createOrder": null },
  "errors": [
    {
      "message": "Insufficient funds",
      "extensions": {
        "code": "INSUFFICIENT_FUNDS",
        "field": "amount"
      }
    }
  ]
}

Versioning

APIs evolve. Versioning strategies determine how you ship changes without breaking existing consumers.

Practical guidance:

• URL path versioning is the most common and easiest for consumers to understand
• Only bump the major version for breaking changes
• Prefer evolving the API additively (new fields, new endpoints) over creating new versions
• When a version is deprecated, communicate a sunset date and provide migration guides

See API Evolution Reference for detailed strategies.

Pagination

Every list endpoint needs pagination. The choice between cursor and offset affects performance, consistency, and client complexity.

Best practices:

• Set a maximum page size (e.g., 100) and a sensible default (e.g., 20)
• Return pagination metadata: hasNextPage, hasPreviousPage, totalCount (if cheap to compute)
• If totalCount is expensive, make it optional or return an estimate
• Use cursors for feeds, activity streams, and any data that changes frequently
• Use offset for admin dashboards, reports, and datasets that rarely change during browsing

Cursor pagination response example:

{
  "data": [ ... ],
  "pagination": {
    "hasNextPage": true,
    "hasPreviousPage": false,
    "startCursor": "eyJpZCI6MX0=",
    "endCursor": "eyJpZCI6MTB9"
  }
}

Authentication & Authorization

Authentication verifies identity (who are you?). Authorization verifies permissions (what can you do?).

Best practices:

• Always use HTTPS — no exceptions
• Transmit tokens in Authorization: Bearer <token> header, not in query strings
• Implement scopes/permissions for fine-grained access control
• Return 401 Unauthorized for missing/invalid credentials, 403 Forbidden for insufficient permissions
• Rate-limit authentication endpoints aggressively to prevent brute-force attacks
• Support token refresh flows to avoid forcing re-authentication

Common Antipatterns

Quality Checklist

Before shipping or reviewing an API, verify:

• Resource naming is consistent (plural nouns, no verbs in URLs)
• HTTP methods match semantics (GET is safe, PUT/DELETE are idempotent)
• Every list endpoint is paginated with a max page size
• Error responses use a consistent format with machine-readable codes
• Authentication is required and uses HTTPS
• Rate limiting is in place with appropriate headers
• Breaking changes are versioned or avoided via additive evolution
• Request/response examples exist for every endpoint
• Timestamps use ISO 8601 with timezone
• IDs are stable external identifiers, not internal auto-increments
• CORS is configured for browser clients (if applicable)
• Compression (gzip/brotli) is enabled for responses
• API documentation is generated from the source of truth (OpenAPI schema, GraphQL introspection)