deploying-applications（部署应用程序）

Deploying Applications

Production deployment patterns from Kubernetes to serverless and edge functions. Bridges the gap from application assembly to production infrastructure.

Purpose

This skill provides clear guidance for:

• Selecting the right deployment strategy (Kubernetes, serverless, containers, edge)
• Implementing Infrastructure as Code with Pulumi or OpenTofu
• Setting up GitOps automation with ArgoCD or Flux
• Choosing serverless databases (Neon, Turso, PlanetScale)
• Deploying edge functions (Cloudflare Workers, Deno Deploy)

When to Use This Skill

Use this skill when:

• Deploying applications to production infrastructure
• Setting up CI/CD pipelines and GitOps workflows
• Choosing between Kubernetes, serverless, or edge deployment
• Implementing Infrastructure as Code (Pulumi, OpenTofu, SST)
• Migrating from manual deployment to automated infrastructure
• Integrating with assembling-components for complete deployment flow

Deployment Strategy Decision Tree

WORKLOAD TYPE?

├── COMPLEX MICROSERVICES (10+ services)
│   └─ Kubernetes + ArgoCD/Flux (GitOps)
│       ├─ Helm 4.0 for packaging
│       ├─ Service mesh: Linkerd (5-10% overhead) or Istio (25-35%)
│       └─ See references/kubernetes-patterns.md

├── VARIABLE TRAFFIC / COST-SENSITIVE
│   └─ Serverless
│       ├─ Database: Neon/Turso (scale-to-zero)
│       ├─ Compute: Vercel, AWS Lambda, Cloud Functions
│       ├─ Edge: Cloudflare Workers (<5ms cold start)
│       └─ See references/serverless-dbs.md and references/edge-functions.md

├── CONSISTENT LOAD / PREDICTABLE TRAFFIC
│   └─ Containers (ECS, Cloud Run, Fly.io)
│       ├─ ECS Fargate: AWS-native, serverless containers
│       ├─ Cloud Run: GCP, scale-to-zero containers
│       └─ Fly.io: Global edge, multi-region

├── GLOBAL LOW-LATENCY (<50ms)
│   └─ Edge Functions + Edge Database
│       ├─ Cloudflare Workers + D1 (SQLite)
│       ├─ Deno Deploy + Turso (libSQL)
│       └─ See references/edge-functions.md

└── RAPID PROTOTYPING / STARTUP MVP
    └─ Managed Platform as a Service
        ├─ Vercel (Next.js, zero-config)
        ├─ Railway (any framework)
        └─ Render (auto-deploy from Git)

IaC CHOICE?

├─ TypeScript-first → Pulumi (Apache 2.0, multi-cloud)
├─ HCL-based → OpenTofu (CNCF, Terraform-compatible)
└─ Serverless TypeScript → SST v3 (built on Pulumi)

Core Concepts

Infrastructure as Code (IaC)

Define infrastructure using code instead of manual configuration.

Primary: Pulumi (TypeScript)

• Context7 ID: /pulumi/docs (Trust: 94.6/100, 9,525 snippets)
• TypeScript-first (same language as React/Next.js)
• Multi-cloud support (AWS, GCP, Azure, Cloudflare)
• See references/pulumi-guide.md for patterns and examples

Alternative: OpenTofu (HCL)

• CNCF project, Terraform-compatible
• MPL-2.0 license (open governance)
• Drop-in Terraform replacement
• See references/opentofu-guide.md for migration

Serverless: SST v3 (TypeScript)

• Built on Pulumi
• Optimized for AWS Lambda, API Gateway
• Live Lambda development

GitOps Deployment

Declarative infrastructure with Git as source of truth.

ArgoCD (Recommended for platform teams):

• Rich web UI
• Built-in RBAC and multi-tenancy
• Self-healing deployments
• See references/gitops-argocd.md

Flux (Recommended for DevOps automation):

• Kubernetes-native
• CLI-focused
• Simpler architecture
• See references/gitops-argocd.md

Service Mesh

Optional layer for microservices communication, security, and observability.

When to Use Service Mesh:

• Multi-team microservices (security boundaries)
• Zero-trust networking (mTLS required)
• Advanced traffic management (canary, blue-green)

When NOT to Use:

• Simple monolith or 2-3 services (overhead not justified)
• Serverless architectures (incompatible)

Linkerd (Performance-focused):

• 5-10% overhead
• Rust-based
• Simple, opinionated

Istio (Feature-rich):

• 25-35% overhead
• C++ (Envoy)
• Advanced routing, observability

See references/kubernetes-patterns.md for service mesh patterns.

Quick Start Workflows

Workflow 1: Deploy Next.js to Vercel (Zero-Config)

# Install Vercel CLI
npm i -g vercel

# Link project
vercel link

# Deploy to production
vercel --prod

See examples/nextjs-vercel/ for complete example.

Workflow 2: Deploy to Kubernetes with ArgoCD

1. Create Helm chart
2. Push chart to Git repository
3. Create ArgoCD Application
4. ArgoCD syncs automatically

See examples/k8s-argocd/ for complete GitOps setup.

Workflow 3: Deploy Serverless with Pulumi

import * as pulumi from "@pulumi/pulumi";
import * as aws from "@pulumi/aws";

// Create Lambda function
const lambda = new aws.lambda.Function("api", {
    runtime: "nodejs20.x",
    handler: "index.handler",
    role: role.arn,
    code: new pulumi.asset.FileArchive("./dist"),
});

export const apiUrl = lambda.invokeArn;

See examples/pulumi-aws/ and references/pulumi-guide.md for patterns.

Workflow 4: Deploy Edge Function to Cloudflare Workers

import { Hono } from 'hono'

const app = new Hono()

app.get('/api/hello', (c) => {
  return c.json({ message: 'Hello from edge!' })
})

export default app

Deploy with Wrangler:

wrangler deploy

See examples/cloudflare-workers-hono/ and references/edge-functions.md.

Integration with assembling-components

After building an application with assembling-components, this skill provides deployment patterns:

Frontend (Next.js/Vite) → Deployment:

1. Review deployment decision tree
2. Choose platform: Vercel (Next.js), Cloudflare Pages (static), or custom (Pulumi)
3. Set up environment variables
4. Deploy using chosen method

Backend (FastAPI/Axum) → Deployment:

1. Containerize application (Dockerfile)
2. Choose platform: ECS Fargate, Cloud Run, or Kubernetes
3. Set up IaC (Pulumi or OpenTofu)
4. Deploy with GitOps (ArgoCD/Flux) or CI/CD

See references/pulumi-guide.md for integration examples.

Reference Files

Kubernetes Deployment

• references/kubernetes-patterns.md - Helm 4.0, service mesh, autoscaling
• references/gitops-argocd.md - ArgoCD/Flux GitOps workflows

Serverless & Edge

• references/serverless-dbs.md - Neon, Turso, PlanetScale (scale-to-zero)
• references/edge-functions.md - Cloudflare Workers, Deno Deploy (<5ms cold starts)

Infrastructure as Code

• references/pulumi-guide.md - Pulumi TypeScript patterns, component model
• references/opentofu-guide.md - OpenTofu/Terraform migration

Utility Scripts

Scripts in scripts/ are executed without loading into context (token-free).

Generate Kubernetes Manifests:

python scripts/generate_k8s_manifests.py --app-name my-app --replicas 3

Validate Deployment Configuration:

python scripts/validate_deployment.py --config deployment.yaml

See script files for full usage documentation.

Examples

Complete, runnable examples in examples/:

• pulumi-aws/ - ECS Fargate deployment with Pulumi
• k8s-argocd/ - Kubernetes + ArgoCD GitOps
• sst-serverless/ - SST v3 serverless TypeScript

Each example includes:

• README.md with setup instructions
• Complete source code
• Environment variable configuration
• Deployment commands

Library Recommendations

Infrastructure as Code (2025)

Primary: Pulumi

• Context7: /pulumi/docs (Trust: 94.6, 9,525 snippets)
• TypeScript-first, multi-cloud
• Apache 2.0 license

Alternative: OpenTofu

• CNCF project, MPL-2.0
• Terraform-compatible
• HCL syntax

Serverless: SST v3

• Built on Pulumi
• AWS Lambda optimized
• TypeScript-native

Serverless Databases

Neon PostgreSQL:

• Database branching (like Git)
• Scale-to-zero compute
• Full PostgreSQL compatibility

Turso SQLite:

• Edge deployment (200+ locations)
• Sub-millisecond reads
• libSQL (SQLite fork)

PlanetScale MySQL:

• Non-blocking schema changes
• Vitess-powered
• Per-row pricing

See references/serverless-dbs.md for comparison and integration.

Edge Functions

Cloudflare Workers:

• <5ms cold starts (V8 isolates)
• 200+ edge locations
• 128MB memory per request

Deno Deploy:

• TypeScript-native
• Web Standard APIs
• Global edge (<50ms)

Hono Framework:

• Runs on all edge runtimes
• 14KB bundle size
• TypeScript-first

See references/edge-functions.md for patterns.

Best Practices

Security

• Use secrets management (AWS Secrets Manager, Vault)
• Enable mTLS for service-to-service communication
• Implement least-privilege IAM roles
• Scan container images for vulnerabilities

Cost Optimization

• Use serverless databases for variable traffic (scale-to-zero)
• Enable horizontal pod autoscaling (HPA) in Kubernetes
• Right-size compute resources (CPU/memory)
• Use spot instances for non-critical workloads

Performance

• Deploy close to users (edge functions for global apps)
• Use CDN for static assets (CloudFront, Cloudflare)
• Implement caching strategies (Redis, CloudFront)
• Monitor cold start times for serverless

Reliability

• Implement health checks (Kubernetes liveness/readiness probes)
• Set up auto-scaling (HPA, Lambda concurrency)
• Use multi-region deployments for critical services
• Implement circuit breakers and retries

Troubleshooting

Deployment Failures

Kubernetes pod fails to start:

1. Check pod logs: kubectl logs <pod-name>
2. Describe pod: kubectl describe pod <pod-name>
3. Verify resource limits and requests
4. Check image pull errors (imagePullSecrets)

Serverless cold starts too slow:

1. Reduce bundle size (tree-shaking, code splitting)
2. Use provisioned concurrency (AWS Lambda)
3. Consider edge functions (Cloudflare Workers)
4. Optimize initialization code

GitOps sync errors (ArgoCD/Flux):

1. Verify Git repository access
2. Check manifest validity (kubectl apply --dry-run)
3. Review sync policies (prune, selfHeal)
4. Check ArgoCD/Flux logs

Performance Issues

High service mesh overhead:

1. Consider switching to Linkerd (5-10% vs Istio 25-35%)
2. Disable unnecessary features
3. Evaluate if service mesh is needed

Database connection pool exhaustion:

1. Increase connection pool size
2. Use serverless databases (Neon scale-to-zero)
3. Implement connection pooling (PgBouncer)

See references/ files for detailed troubleshooting guides.

Migration Patterns

From Manual to IaC

1. Inventory existing infrastructure
2. Start with non-critical environments (dev, staging)
3. Use Pulumi/OpenTofu to codify infrastructure
4. Test in staging before production
5. Gradual migration (one service at a time)

From Terraform to OpenTofu

# Install OpenTofu
brew install opentofu

# Migrate state
terraform state pull > terraform.tfstate.backup
tofu init -migrate-state
tofu plan
tofu apply

See references/opentofu-guide.md for complete migration.

From EC2 to Containers

1. Containerize application (create Dockerfile)
2. Test locally (Docker Compose)
3. Deploy to staging (ECS/Cloud Run/Kubernetes)
4. Monitor performance and costs
5. Cutover production traffic (blue-green deployment)

From Containers to Serverless

1. Identify stateless services
2. Refactor to serverless-friendly patterns
3. Use serverless databases (Neon/Turso)
4. Deploy to Lambda/Cloud Functions
5. Monitor cold starts and costs

Next Steps

After deploying applications:

• Set up observability (metrics, logs, traces)
• Implement CI/CD pipelines (GitHub Actions, GitLab CI)
• Configure auto-scaling and resource limits
• Set up disaster recovery and backups
• Document runbooks for incident response

Additional Resources

• Pulumi documentation: https://www.pulumi.com/docs/
• OpenTofu documentation: https://opentofu.org/docs/
• ArgoCD documentation: https://argo-cd.readthedocs.io/
• Cloudflare Workers docs: https://developers.cloudflare.com/workers/
• Neon documentation: https://neon.tech/docs/